CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS
CAPACITORS
Capacitors are one of the most difficult things to test. That's
because they don't give a reading on a multimeter and their value can range
from 1p to 100,000u.
A faulty capacitor may be "open" when measured with a multimeter, and
a good capacitor will also be "open."
You need a piece of test equipment called a CAPACITANCE METER to measure the
value of a capacitor.HOW A CAPACITOR WORKS
There are two ways to describe how a capacitor works. Both are correct and you
have to combine them to get a full picture.
A capacitor has INFINITE resistance between one lead and the other.
This means no current flows through a capacitor. But it works
in another way.
Suppose you have a strong magnet on one side of a door and a piece of metal on
the other. By sliding the magnet up and down the door, the metal rises and
falls.
The metal can be connected to a pump and you can pump water by sliding the
magnet up and down.
A capacitor works in exactly the same way.
If you raise a voltage on one lead of a capacitor, the other lead will rise to
the same voltage. This needs more explaining - we are keeping the discussion
simple.
It works just like the magnetic field of the magnet through a door.
The next concept is this:
Capacitors are equivalent to a tiny rechargeable battery.
They store energy when the supply-voltage is present and release it when the
supply drops.
These two concepts can be used in many ways and that's why capacitors perform
tasks such as filtering, time-delays, passing a signal from one stage to another
and create many different effects in a circuit.
CAPACITOR VALUES
The basic unit of capacitance is the FARAD. (C) This
is the value used in all equations, but it is a very large value. A one FARAD
capacitor would be the size of a car if made with plates and paper. Most
electronic circuits use capacitors with smaller values such as 1p to 1,000u. 1p is about equal to two parallel
wires 2cm long. 1p is one picofarad.
The easiest way to understand capacitor values is to
start with a value of 1u. This is one microfarad and is one-millionth of a
Farad. A 1 microfarad capacitor is about 1cm long and the diagram shows a 1u
electrolytic.
Smaller
capacitors are ceramic and they look like the following. This is a 100n
ceramic:
To
read the value on a capacitor you need to know a few facts.
The basic value of capacitance is the FARAD.
1 microfarad is one millionth of 1 farad.
1 microfarad is divided into smaller parts called nanofarad.
1,000 nanofarad = 1 microfarad
Nanofarad is divided into small parts called picofarad
1,000 picofarad = 1 nanofarad.
Recapping:
1p = 1 picofarad. 1,000p = 1n ( 1 nanofarad)
1,000n = 1u (1 microfarad)
1,000u = 1millifarad
1,000,000u = 1 FARAD.
Examples:
All ceramic capacitors are marked in "p" (puff")
A ceramic with 22 is 22p = 22 picofarad
A ceramic with 47 is 47p = 47 picofarad
A ceramic with 470 is 470p = 470 picofarad
A ceramic with 471 is 470p = 470 picofarad
A ceramic with 102 is 1,000p = 1n
A ceramic with 223 is 22,000p = 22n
A ceramic with 104 is 100,000p = 100n = 0.1u
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
For testing purposes, there are two types of capacitor.
Capacitors from 1p to 100n are non-polar and can be inserted into a circuit
around either way.
Capacitors from 1u to 100,000u are electrolytics and are polarised. They
must be fitted so the positive lead goes to the supply voltage and the negative
lead goes to ground (or earth).
There are many different sizes, shapes and types of capacitor. They are all the
same. They consist of two plates with an insulating material between. The two
plates can be stacked in layers or rolled together.
The important factor is the insulating material. It must be very thin to keep
things small. This gives the capacitor its VOLTAGE RATING.
If a capacitor sees a voltage higher than its rating, the voltage will
"jump through" the insulating material or around it.
If this happens, a carbon deposit is left behind and the capacitor becomes
"leaky" or very low resistance, as carbon is conductive.
CERAMIC
CAPACITORS
Nearly all small capacitors are ceramic capacitors as
this material is cheap and the capacitor can be made in very thin layers to
produced a high capacitance for the size of the component. This is especially
true for surface-mount capacitors.
All capacitors are marked with a value and the basic unit is: "p" for
"puff" However NO surface mount capacitors are marked and they
are very difficult to test.
|
VALUE:
|
VALUE WRITTEN ON
THE COMPONENT:
|
|
0.1p
0.22p
0.47p
1.0p
2.2p
4.7p
5.6p
8.2p
10p
22p
47p
56p
100p
220p
470p
560p
820p
1,000p (1n)
2200p (2n2)
4700p (4n7)
8200p (8n2)
10n
22n
47n
100n
220n
470n
1u
|
0p1
0p22
0p47
1p0
2p2
4p7
5p6
8p2
10 or 10p
22 or 22p
47 or 47p
56 or 56p
100 on 101
220 or 221
470 or 471
560 or 561
820 or 821
102
222
472
822
103
223
473
104
224
474
105
|
POLYESTER,
POLYCARBONATE, POLYSTYRENE, MYLAR, METALLISED POLYESTER, ("POLY"),
MICA and other types of CAPACITOR
There are many types of capacitor and they are chosen for their
reliability, stability, temperate-range and cost.
For testing and repair work, they are all the same. Simply replace with exactly
the same type and value.
Capacitor Colour Code Table
|
Colour
|
Digit
A
|
Digit
B
|
Multiplier
D
|
Tolerance
(T) > 10pf
|
Tolerance
(T) < 10pf
|
Temperature Coefficient
(TC)
|
|
Black
|
0
|
0
|
x1
|
± 20%
|
± 2.0pF
|
|
|
Brown
|
1
|
1
|
x10
|
± 1%
|
± 0.1pF
|
-33x10-6
|
|
Red
|
2
|
2
|
x100
|
± 2%
|
± 0.25pF
|
-75x10-6
|
|
Orange
|
3
|
3
|
x1,000
|
± 3%
|
|
-150x10-6
|
|
Yellow
|
4
|
4
|
x10,000
|
± 4%
|
|
-220x10-6
|
|
Green
|
5
|
5
|
x100,000
|
± 5%
|
± 0.5pF
|
-330x10-6
|
|
Blue
|
6
|
6
|
x1,000,000
|
|
|
-470x10-6
|
|
Violet
|
7
|
7
|
|
|
|
-750x10-6
|
|
Grey
|
8
|
8
|
x0.01
|
+80%,-20%
|
|
|
|
White
|
9
|
9
|
x0.1
|
± 10%
|
± 1.0pF
|
|
|
Gold
|
|
|
x0.1
|
± 5%
|
|
|
|
Silver
|
|
|
x0.01
|
± 10%
|
|
|
ELECTROLYTIC and
TANTALUM CAPACITORS
Electrolytics and Tantalums are the same for testing purposes but
their performance is slightly different in some circuits. A tantalum is smaller
for the same rating as an electrolytic and has a better ability at delivering a
current. They are available up to about 1,000u, at about 50v but their cost is
much higher than an electrolytic.
Electrolytics are available in 1u, 2u2 3u3 4u7 10u, 22u, 47u, 100u, 220u, 330u,
470u, 1,000u, 2,200u, 3,300u, 4,700u, 10,000u and higher.
The "voltage" or "working voltage" can be: 3.3v, 10v, 16v,
25v, 63v, 100v, 200v and higher.
There is also another important factor that is rarely covered in text books. It
is RIPPLE FACTOR.
This is the amount of current that can enter and leave an electrolytic. This
current heats up the electrolytic and that is why some electrolytics are much
larger than others, even though the capacitance and voltage-ratings are the
same.
If you replace an electrolytic with a "miniature" version, it will
heat up and have a very short life. This is especially important in power
supplies where current (energy) is constantly entering and exiting the
electrolytic as its main purpose is to provide a smooth output from a set of
diodes that delivers "pulsing DC." (see "Power
Diodes")
NON-POLAR CAPACITORS
(ELECTROLYTICS)
Electrolytics are also available in non-polar values. It sometimes
has the letters "NP" on the component. Sometimes the leads are not
identified.
This is an electrolytic that does not have a positive and negative lead but two
leads and either lead can be connected to the positive or negative of the
circuit.
These electrolytics are usually connected to the output of an
amplifier (such as in a filter near the speaker) where the signal is
rising and falling.
A non-polar electrolytic can be created from two ordinary electrolytics by
connecting the negative leads together and the two positive leads become the
new leads.
For example: two 100u 63v electrolytics will produce a 47u 63v non-polar
electrolytic.
In the circuit below, the non-polar capacitor is replaced with two electrolytics.
PARALLEL
and SERIES CAPACITORSCapacitors can be connected in PARALLEL
and/or SERIES for a number of reasons.
1. If you do not have the exact value, two or more connected in parallel or
series can produce the value you need.
2. Capacitors connected in series will produce one with a higher voltage
rating.
3. Capacitors connected in parallel will produce a larger-value capacitance.
Here are examples of two equal capacitors connected in series or parallel and
the results they produce:
VOLTAGE RATING OF
CAPACITOR
Capacitors have a voltage rating, stated as WV for working
voltage, or WVDC. This specifies the maximum voltage that can be applied across
the capacitor without puncturing the dielectric. Voltage ratings for
"poly," mica and ceramic capacitors are typically 50v to 500 VDC.
Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1kv to 5kv are also available. Electrolytic
capacitors are commonly available in 6v, 10v 16v, 25v, 50v, 100v, 150v, and
450v ratings.
CAUTION
If a capacitor has a voltage rating of 63v, do not put it in a 100v circuit as
the insulation (called the dielectric) will be punctured and the capacitor will
"short-circuit." It's ok to replace a 0.22uF 50WV capacitor with
0.22uF 250WVDC.SAFETY
A capacitor can store a charge for a period of time after the equipment is
turned off. High voltage electrolytic caps can pose a safety hazard. These
capacitors are in power supplies and some have a resistor across them, called a
bleed resistor, to discharge the cap after power is switched off.
If a bleed resistor is not present the cap can retain a charge after the
equipment is unplugged.How to discharge a capacitor
Do not use a screwdriver to short between the terminals as this will damage the
capacitor internally and the screwdriver.
Use a 1k 3watt or 5watt resistor on jumper leads and keep them connected for a
few seconds to fully discharge the electro.
Test it with a voltmeter to make sure all the energy has been removed.
Before testing any capacitors, especially electrolytics, you
should look to see if any are damaged, overheated or leaking. Swelling at the
top of an electrolytic indicates heating and pressure inside the case and will
result in drying out of the electrolyte. Any hot or warm electrolytic indicates
leakage and ceramic capacitors with portions missing indicates something has
gone wrong.TESTING A CAPACITOR
There are two things you can test with a multimeter:
1. A short-circuit within the capacitor
2. Capacitor values above 1u.
You can test capacitors in-circuit for short-circuits. Use the x1 ohms range.
To test a capacitor for leakage, you need to remove it or at least one lead
must be removed. Use the x10k range on an analogue or digital multimeter.
For values above 1u you can determine if the capacitor is charging by using an
analogue meter. The needle will initially move across the scale to indicate the
cap is charging, then go to "no deflection." Any permanent deflection
of the needle will indicate leakage.
You can reverse the probes to see if the needle moves in the opposite
direction. This indicates it has been charged. Values below 1u will not respond
to charging and the needle will not deflect.
This does not work with a digital meter as the resistance range does not output
any current and the electrolytic does not charge.
Rather than spending money on a capacitance meter, it is cheaper to replace any
suspect capacitor or electrolytic.
Capacitors can produce very unusual faults and no piece of test equipment is
going to detect the problem.
In most cases, it is a simple matter to solder another capacitor across the
suspect component and view or listen to the result.
This saves all the worry of removing the component and testing it with
equipment that cannot possibly give you an accurate reading when the full
voltage and current is not present.
It is complete madness to even think of testing critical components such as
capacitors, with TEST EQUIPMENT. You are fooling yourself. If the Test
Equipment says the component is ok, you will look somewhere else and waste a
lot of time.
FINDING THE VALUE OF A
CAPACITOR
If you want to find the value of a surface-mount capacitor or one where the
markings have been removed, you will need a CAPACITANCE METER. Here is a simple
circuit that can be added to your meter to read capacitor values from 10p to
10u.
The full article can be found HERE.
ADD-ON CAPACITANCE METER
REPLACING A CAPACITOR
Always replace a capacitor with the exact same type.
A capacitor may be slightly important in a circuit or it might be extremely
critical.
A manufacturer may have taken years to select
the right type of capacitor due to previous failures.
A capacitor just doesn't have a "value of capacitance."
It may also has an effect called "tightening of the rails."
In other words, a capacitor has the ability to react quickly and either absorb
or deliver energy to prevent spikes or fluctuations on the rail.
This is due to the way it is constructed. Some capacitors are simply plates of
metal film while others are wound in a coil. Some capacitors are large while
others are small.
They all react differently when the voltage fluctuates.
Not only this, but some capacitors are very stable and all these features go
into the decision for the type of capacitor to use.
You can completely destroy the operation of a circuit by selecting the wrong
type of capacitor. No capacitor is perfect and when it gets charged or
discharged, it appears to have a small value of resistance in series with the
value of capacitance. This is known as "ESR" and stands for
EQUIVALENT SERIES RESISTANCE. This effectively makes the capacitor slightly
slower to charge and discharge.
We cannot go into the theory on selecting a capacitor as it would be larger
than this eBook so the only solution is to replace a capacitor with an
identical type.
However if you get more than one repair with identical faults, you should ask
other technicians if the original capacitor comes from a faulty batch.
The author has fixed TV's and fax machines where the capacitors have been
inferior and alternate types have solved the problem.
Some capacitor are suitable for high frequencies, others for low frequencies.
TESTING DIODESDiodes can have 4 different faults.
1. Open circuit in both directions.
2. Low resistance in both directions.
3. Leaky.
4. Breakdown under load.
TESTING A DIODE ON AN ANALOGUE METER
Testing a diode with an Analogue Multimeter can be done on any
of the resistance ranges. [The high resistance range is best - it sometimes has
a high voltage battery for this range but this does not affect our testing]
There are two things you must remember. 1. When
the diode is measured in one direction, the needle will not move at all.
The technical term for this is the diode is reverse biased. It will
not allow any current to flow. Thus the needle will not move.
When the diode is connected around the other way, the needle will swing to the
right (move up scale) to about 80% of the scale. This position represents the
voltage drop across the junction of the diode and is NOT a resistance value. If
you change the resistance range, the needle will move to a slightly different
position due to the resistances inside the meter. The technical term for this
is the diode is forward biased. This indicates the diode is not
faulty.
The needle will swing to a slightly different position for a "normal
diode" compared to a Schottky diode. This is due to the different junction
voltage drops.
However we are only testing the diode at very low voltage and it may break-down
when fitted to a circuit due to a higher voltage being present or due to a high
current flowing. 2. The leads of an Analogue
Multimeter have the positive of the battery connected to the black probe
and the readings of a "good diode" are shown in the following two
diagrams:
The diode
is REVERSE BIASED in
the
diagram above and diodes not conduct.
The diode is FORWARD BIASED in the
diagram above and it conducts
TESTING A DIODE ON A DIGITAL METER
Testing a diode with a Digital Meter must be done on the "DIODE"
setting as a digital meter does not deliver a current through the probes on
some of the resistance settings and will not produce an accurate reading.
The best thing to do with a "suspect"
diode is to replace it. This is because a diode has a number of characteristics
that cannot be tested with simple equipment. Some diodes have a fast recovery
for use in high frequency circuits. They conduct very quickly and turn off very
quickly so the waveform is processed accurately and efficiently.
If the diode is replaced with an ordinary diode, it will heat up as does not
have the high-speed characteristic.
Other diodes have a low drop across them and if an ordinary is used, it will
heat up.
Most diodes fail by going: SHORT-CIRCUIT. This can be detected by a low
resistance (x1 or x10 Ohms range) in both directions.
A diode can also go OPEN CIRCUIT. To locate this fault, place an identical
diode across the diode being tested.
A leaky diode can be detected by a low reading in one direction and a slight
reading the other direction.
However this type of fault can only be detected when the circuit is working.
The output of the circuit will be low and sometimes the diode heats up (more
than normal).
A diode can go open under full load conditions and perform intermittently.
Diodes come in pairs in surface-mount packages and 4 diodes can be found in a
bridge.
They are also available in pairs that look like a 3-leaded transistor.
The line on the end of the body of a diode indicates the cathode and you cannot
say "this is the positive lead." The correct way to describe the
leads is to say the "cathode lead." The other lead is the anode. The
cathode is defined as the electrode (or lead) through which an electric current
flows out of a device.
The following diagrams show different types of diodes:
POWER DIODESTo
understand how a power diode works, we need to describe a few things. This has
NEVER been described before, so read carefully.
The 240v AC (called the "mains") consists of two wires, one is called
the ACTIVE and the other is NEUTRAL. Suppose you touch both wires. You will get
a shock. The neutral is connected to an earth wire (or rod driven into the
ground or connected to a water pipe) at the point where the electricity enters
the premises and you do not get a shock from the NEUTRAL.
But the voltage on the active is rising to +345v then goes to -345v at the rate
of 50 times per second (for a complete cycle).
345v is the peak voltage of 240v. You never get a 240v shock. (It is a 345v
shock.)
In other words, if you touch the two wires at a particular instant, you would
get a POSITIVE 345v shock and at another instant you would get a negative 345v
shock. This is shown in the diagram below.
We now transfer this concept to the output of a transformer. The diagram shows
an AC waveform on the output of the secondary.
This voltage is rising 15v higher than the bottom lead then it is 15v
LOWER than the bottom lead. The bottom lead is called "zero volts."
You have to say one lead or wire is not "rising and falling" as you
need a "reference" or starting-point" or "zero point"
for voltage measurements.
The diode only conducts when the voltage is "above zero" (actually
when it is 0.7v above zero) and does not conduct (at all) when the voltage goes
below zero.
This is shown on the output of the Power Diode. Only the positive peaks or the positive parts of
the waveform appear on the output and this is called "pulsing
DC." This is called "half-wave" and is not used in a power
supply. We have used it to describe how the diode works. The electrolytics
charge during the peaks and deliver energy when the diode is not delivering
current. This is how the output becomes a steady DC voltage.
Power supplies use FULL WAVE rectification and the other half of the AC
waveform is delivered to the output (and fills in the "gaps") and
appears as shown in "A."
DAMPER DIODES
A damper diode is a
diode that detects a high voltage and SQUELCHES IT (reduces it - removes it).
The signal that it squelches is a voltage that is in the opposite direction to
the "supply voltage" and is produced by the collapsing of a magnetic
field. Whenever a magnetic filed collapses, it produces a voltage in the
winding that is opposite to the supply voltage and can be much higher. This is
the principle of a flyback circuit or EHT circuit. The high voltage comes from
the transformer.
The diode is placed so that the signal passes through it and less than 0.5v
appears across it.
A damper diode can be placed across the coil of a relay, incorporated into a
transistor or FET or placed across a winding of a flyback transformer to
protect the driving transistor or FET.
It can also be called a "Reverse-Voltage Protection Diode," "Spike
Suppression Diode," or "Voltage Clamp Diode."
The main characteristic of a Damper Diode is HIGH SPEED so it can detect the
spike and absorb the energy.
It does not have to be a high-voltage diode as the high voltage in the circuit
is being absorbed by the diode.
SILICON,
GERMANIUM AND SCHOTTKY DIODESWhen testing a diode with an analogue meter, you will
get a low reading in one direction and a high (or NO READING) in the other
direction. When reading in the LOW direction, the needle will swing nearly full
scale and the reading is not a resistance-value but a reflection of the
characteristic voltage drop across the junction of the diode. As we mentioned
before, a resistance reading is really a voltage reading and the meter is
measuring the voltage of the battery minus the voltage-drop across the diode.
Since Silicon, Germanium and Schottky Diodes have slightly different
characteristic voltage drops across the junction, you will get a slightly
different reading on the scale. This does not represent one diode being better
than the other or capable of handling a higher current or any other
feature.
The quickest, easiest and cheapest way to find, fix and solve a problem caused
by a faulty diode is to replace it.
There is no piece of test equipment capable of testing a diode fully, and the
circuit you are working on is actually the best piece of test equipment as it
is identifying the fault UNDER LOAD.
Only very simple tests can be done with a multimeter and it is best to check a
diode with an ANALOGUE MULTIMETER as it outputs a higher current though the
diode and produces a more-reliable result.
A Digital meter can produce false readings as it does not apply enough
current to activate the junction.
Fortunately almost every digital multimeter has a diode test mode. Using
this, a silicon diode should read a voltage drop between 0.5v to 0.8v in the
forward direction and open in the reverse direction. For a germanium diode, the
reading will be lower, around 0.2v - 0.4v in the forward direction. A bad diode
will read zero
volts in both directions.
LIGHT
EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are diodes that produce light when
current flows from anode to cathode. The LED does not emit light when it is
revered-biased. It is used as a low current indicator in many types of consumer
and industrial equipment, such as monitors, TV’s, printers, hi-fi systems,
machinery and control panels.
The light produced by a LED can be visible, such as red, green, yellow or
white. It can also be invisible and these LEDs are called Infrared LEDs. They
are used in remote controls and to see if they are working, you need to point a
digital camera at the LED and view the picture on the camera screen.
An LED needs about 2v - 3.6v across its leads to make it emit light, but this voltage
must be exact for the type and colour of the LED. The simplest way to deliver
the exact voltage is to have a supply that is higher than needed and include a
voltage-dropping resistor. The value of the resistor must be selected so the
current is between 2mA and 25mA.
The cathode of the LED is identified by a flat on the side of the LED. The life
expectancy of a LED is about 100,000 hours. LEDs rarely fail but they are very
sensitive to heat and they must be soldered and de-soldered quickly. They are one
of the most heat-sensitive components.
Light emitting diodes cannot be tested with most multimeters because the
characteristic voltage across them is higher than the voltage of the battery in
the meter.
However a simple tester can be made by joining 3 cells together with a 220R
resistor and 2 alligator clips:
LED TESTER
Connect the clips to a LED and it will illuminate in only one
direction.
The colour of the LED will determine the voltage across it. You can measure this
voltage if you want to match two or more LEDs for identical operation.
Red LEDs are generally 1.7v to 1.9v. - depending on the quality such as
"high-bright"
Green LEDs are 1.9v to 2.3v.
Orange LEDs are about 2.3v and
White LEDs and IR LEDs are about 3.3v to 3.6v.
The illumination produced by a LED is determined by the quality of the crystal.
It is the crystal that produces the colour and you need to replace a LED with
the same quality to achieve the same illumination.
Never connect a LED across a battery (such as 6v or 9v), as it will be
instantly damaged. You must have a resistor in series with the LED to limit the
current.
ZENER DIODES
All diodes are Zener diodes. For instance a 1N4148 is a 120v zener
diode as this is its reverse breakdown voltage.
And a zener diode can be used as an ordinary diode in a circuit with a voltage
that is below the zener value.
For instance, 20v zener diodes can be used in a 12v power supply as the voltage
never reaches 20v, and the zener characteristic is never reached.
Most diodes have a reverse breakdown voltage above 100v, while most zeners are
below 70v. A 24v zener can be created by using two 12v zeners in series and a
normal diode has a characteristic voltage of 0.7v. This can be used to increase
the voltage of a zener diode by 0.7v. See the diagram
above. It uses 3 ordinary diodes to increase the
output voltage of a 3-terminal regulator by 2.1v.
To tests a zener diode you need a power supply about 10v higher than the zener
of the diode. Connect the zener across the supply with a 1k to 4k7 resistor and
measure the voltage across the diode. If it measures less than 1v, reverse the
zener.
If the reading is high or low in both directions, the zener is damaged.
Here is a zener diode tester. The circuit will test up to 56v zeners.
ZENER DIODE TESTER
TRANSFORMERLESS POWER SUPPLY
Here's a circuit that uses zener diodes in a power supply to show
how they work. This clever design uses 4 diodes in a bridge to produce a
fixed voltage power supply capable of supplying 35mA.
If we put 2 zener diodes in a bridge with two ordinary power diodes, the bridge
will break-down at the voltage of the zener. This is what we have done. If we
use 18v zeners, the output will be 17v4.
SUPPLY USING ZENER DIODES
When the incoming voltage is positive at the top, the left zener
provides 18v limit (and the other zener produces a drop of 0.6v). This
allows the right zener to pass current just like a normal diode. The
output is 17v4. The same with the other half-cycle.
You cannot use this type of bridge in a normal power supply as the zener diode
will "short" when the input voltage reaches the zener value. The
concept only works in the circuit above.
VOLTAGE
REGULATORS
A Voltage Regulator takes a high input voltage and delivers a
fixed output voltage.
Providing the input voltage is 4v above the output voltage, the regulator will
deliver a fixed output voltage with almost no ripple.
Voltage regulators are also called "3-TERMINAL REGULATORS" or
"REGULATOR IC's" - although this name is not generally used.
In most cases, a voltage regulator gets quite hot and for this reason it has a
high failure-rate.
If a regulator is not getting hot (or warm) it has either failed or the circuit
is not operating.
A regulator can only decrease the voltage. It cannot increase the current. This
means the current being supplied to a circuit must also be available from the
circuit supplying the regulator.
All regulators have different pin-outs, so you need to find the input pin and
output pin and make sure the voltage-difference is at least 4v. Some regulators
will work with a difference as low as 1v, so you need to read the
specifications for the type you are servicing.
Some regulators are called “negative voltage regulators” and the input voltage
will be negative and the output will be negative.
You need to test a voltage regulator with the power "ON".
Make sure you do not allow the probes to short any of the pins together as this
will destroy the regulator or the circuit being supplied.
With the power turned off or the regulator removed from the circuit, you can
test it with a multimeter set to resistance to see if it is ok. If any
resistance readings are very low or zero ohms, the regulator is damaged.
TRANSFORMERS
All transformers and coils are tested the same way. This includes
chokes, coils, inductors, yokes, power transformers, EHT transformers (flyback
transformers), switch mode transformers, isolation transformers, IF
transformers, baluns, and any device that has turns of wire around a former.
All these devices can go faulty.
The coating on the wire is called insulation or "enamel" and this can
crack or become overheated or damaged due to vibration or movement. When two
turns touch each other, a very interesting thing happens. The winding becomes two separate windings.
We will take the case of a single winding such as a coil. This is
shown in the first diagram above and the winding is wound across a former and
back again, making two layers. The bottom and top layers touch at the point
shown in the diagram and the current that originally passed though A, B, C, D
now passes though A & D.
Winding B C becomes a separate winding as shown in the second diagram.
In other words the coil becomes a TRANSFORMER with a SHORT CIRCUIT on the
secondary winding as shown in the third diagram.
When the output wires of a transformer are shorted together, it delivers a very
high current because you have created a SHORT-CIRCUIT. This short-circuit
causes the transformer to get very hot.
That’s exactly what happens when any coil or transformer gets a “shorted turn.”
The shorted turns can be a single turn or many turns.
It is not possible to measure a fault like this with a multimeter as you don’t
know the exact resistance of a working coil or winding and the resistance of a
faulty winding may be only 0.001 ohms less.
However when a transformer or coil is measured with an inductance meter, an
oscillating voltage (or spike) is delivered into the core as magnetic flux,
then the magnetic flux collapses and passes the energy into the winding to
produce a waveform. The inductance meter reads this and produces a value of
inductance in Henry (milliHenry or microHenry.)
This is done with the transformer removed from the circuit and this can be a
very difficult thing to do, as most transformers have a number of connections.
If the coil or transformer has a shorted turn, the energy from the magnetic
flux will pass into the turns that are shorted and produce a current. Almost no
voltage will be detected from winding.
The reading from the inductance meter will be low or very low and you have to
work out if it is correct.
However there is one major problem with measuring a faulty transformer or coil.
It may only become faulty when power is applied.
The voltage between the turns may be sparking or jumping a gap and creating a
problem. A tester is not going to find this fault.
Secondly, an inductance meter may produce a reading but you do not know if the
reading is correct. An improved tester is a RING TESTER.
The circuit for a ring tester can be found here:
http://www.flippers.com/pdfs/k7205.pdfIt sends a pulse to the coil and counts the number of returning
pulses or "rings." A faulty coil (or winding) may return one
pulse but nearly all the energy will be passed to the shorted turns and you
will be able to see this on the scale. You will only get one or two return
pulses, whereas a good winding will return more pulses.
One way to detect a faulty power transformer is to connect it to the supply and
feel the temperature-rise (when nothing is connected to the secondary).
It should NOT get hot.
Detecting shorted turns is not easy to diagnose as you really need another
identical component to compare the results.
Most transformers get very hot when a shorted turn has developed. It may deliver a voltage but the heat
generated and a smell from the transformer will indicate a fault.
ISOLATION TRANSFORMERAn
isolation transformer is a piece of Test Equipment that provides "Mains
Voltage" but the voltage is "floating." You will still get a
shock if you touch the two output leads, but it has a special use when testing
unknown equipment.
Many electrical appliances are fully insulated and only have two leads
connected to the mains.
When you take these appliances apart, you do not know which end of say a
heating element is connected to the "live" (active) side of the
mains and which end connects to the neutral.
I am not suggesting you carry out the following tests, but they are described
to show how an isolation transformer works.
If you touch a soldering iron on the "live" (active) end of the
heating element it will cause a short-circuit.
However when the appliance is connected to the main via an isolation
transformer, you can touch an earthed soldering iron on either end of the
heater as both leads from the isolation transformer are "floating."
Note: As soon as you earth one lead of the output an isolation transformer, the
other lead becomes "active."
You can make your own Isolation Transformer by connecting two
identical transformers "back-to-back."
The following diagram shows how this is done:
You can use any transformers providing the primary and secondary
voltages are the same. The current capability of the secondary winding does not
matter. However if you want a supply that has almost the same voltage as your
"Mains," you need two transformers with the same voltages.
This handy isolation transformer will provide you with "Mains
Voltage" but with a limited current.
In other words it will have a limited capability to supply "wattage."
If you are using two 15VA transformers, you will only be able to test an
appliance rated at 15 watts.
This has some advantages and some disadvantages.
If you are working on a project, and a short-circuit occurs, the damage will be
limited to 15 watts.
If you are using two transformers with different VA ratings, the lower rating
will be the capability of the combination.
If the secondaries are not equal, you will get a higher or lower "Mains
Voltage."
If you get two old TV's or Monitors with a rating on the compliance plate of 45
watts, or 90 watts, you can assume the transformers are capable of delivering
this wattage and making an isolation transformer will enable you to test
similar items with the safety of being isolated from the mains.
Colin Mitchell designs a lot of "LED lighting lamps" that are connected
directly to the mains. He always works with an isolating transformer, just to
be safe. Working on exposed "mains" devices is extremely
nerve-wracking and you have to very careful. DETERMINING THE SPECS OF A
TRANSFORMERSuppose you have a "mains transformer" with unknown
output voltages and unknown current capability.
You must be sure it is a mains transformer designed for operation on 50Hz or
60Hz. Switch-Mode transformers operate at frequencies 40kHz and higher and are
not covered in this discussion.
To be on the safe-side, connect the unknown transformer to the output of your
isolating transformer.
Since the transformer will take almost no current when not loaded, the output
voltages it produces will be fairly accurate. Measure the input AC voltage and
output AC voltage.
If the transformer has loaded your isolating transformer it will be faulty.
Mains transformers are approx 15 VA for 500gm, 30VA for 1kgm
50VA for 2kgm and and 100VA for 2.5kgm.
VA stands for Volts-Amps and is similar to saying watts. Watts is used for DC
circuits, while VA refers to AC circuits.
Once you have the weight of the transformer and the output voltage, you can
work out the current capability of the secondary.
For transformers up to 30vA, the output voltage on no-load is 30% higher than
the final "loaded voltage."
This is due to the poor regulation of these small devices.
If the transformer is 15VA and the output voltage will be 15v AC, the current
will be 1 amp AC.
You can check the "quality" of the transformer, (the regulation) by
fully loading the output and measuring the final voltage. If the transformer
has a number of secondaries, the VA rating must be divided between all the
windings.OPTO ISOLATORS and OPTO COUPLERSOpto
Isolators and Opto Couplers are the same thing. A common opto-coupler is 4N35.
It is used to allow two circuits to exchange signals yet remain
electrically isolated. The signal is applied to the LED, which shines on a
silicon NPN photo-transistor in the IC.
The light is proportional to the signal, so the signal is transferred to the
photo transistor to turn it on a proportional amount. Opto-couplers can have
Light Activated SCR's, photodiodes, TRIAC's and other semiconductor devices as
an output. The 4N35 opto-coupler schematic is shown below:
An opto-Coupler using a TRIAC
TESTING AN OPTO COUPLER
Most multimeters cannot test the LED on the input of an
opto-coupler because the ohms range does not have a voltage high enough to
activate the LED with at least 2mA.
You need to set-up the test-circuit shown above with a 1k resistor on the input
and 1k5 on the output. When the 1k is connected to 12v, the output LED
will illuminate.
The opto-coupler should be removed from circuit to perform this test.
TRANSISTORS
Transistors are solid-state devices and although they operate
completely differently to a diode, they appear as two back-to-back diodes when
tested.
There are basically 2 types of transistor NPN and PNP.
A transistor is sometimes referred to as BJT (Bi-polar Junction Transistor) to
distinguish it from other types of transistor such as Field Effect transistor,
Programmable Unijunction Transistor and others.
In the following diagram, two diodes are connected together and although the
construction of a transistor is more complex, we see the transistor as two
diodes when testing it.
A TRANSISTOR APPEARS AS
TWO DIODES WHEN TESTING IT
All transistors have three leads. Base (b), Collector (c), and
Emitter (e).
For an NPN transistor, the arrow on the emitter points away from the base.
It is fortunate that the arrow on both symbols points in the direction of the
flow of current (Conventional Current) and this makes it easy to describe
testing methods using our simplified set of instructions. The symbols have been
drawn exactly as they appear on a circuit diagram.
All transistors are the same but we talk about digital and
analogue transistors. There is no difference between the two.
The difference is the circuit. And the only other slight difference between
transistors is the fact that some have inbuilt diodes and resistors to simplify
the rest of the circuit.
All transistors work the same way. The only difference is the amount of
amplification they provide, the current and voltage they can withstand and the
speed at which they work. For simple testing purposes, they are all the same.
NPN transistors are the most common and for an NPN transistor, the following
applies.
(the opposite applies for PNP)
To test a transistor, there is one thing you have to know:
When the base voltage is higher than the emitter, current flows
though the collector-emitter leads.
As the voltage is increased on the base, nothing happens until the
voltage reaches 0.55v. At this point a very small current flows through the
collector-emitter leads. As the voltage is increased, the current-flow
increases. At about 0.75v, the current-flow is a MAXIMUM. (can be as high as
0.9v). That's how it works. A transistor also needscurrent to flow
into the base to perform this amplifying function and this is the one feature
that separates an ordinary transistor from a FET.
If the voltage on the base is 0v, then instantly goes to 0.75v, the transistor
initially passes NO current, then FULL current. The transistor is said to be
working in its two states: OFF then ON (sometimes called: "cut-off"
and "saturation"). These are called digital states and the transistor
is said to be a DIGITAL TRANSISTOR or a SWITCHING
TRANSISTOR , working in DIGITAL MODE.
If the base is delivered 0.5v, then slowly rises to 0.75v and slowly to 0.65v,
then 0.7v, then 0.56v etc, the transistor is said to be working in ANALOGUE
MODE and the transistor is an ANALOGUE TRANSISTOR.
Since a transistor is capable of amplifying a signal, it is said to be an
active device. Components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes
are not able to amplify and are therefore known as passive components.
In the following tests, use your finger to provide the TURN ON voltage
for the base (this is 0.55v to 0.7v) and as you press harder, more current
flows into the base and thus more current flows through the collector-emitter
terminals. As more current flows, the needle of the multimeter moves UP-SCALE.
TESTING A TRANSISTOR ON A DIGITAL METER
Testing a transistor with a Digital Meter must be done on the
"DIODE" setting as a digital meter does not deliver a current through
the probes on some of the resistance settings and will not produce an accurate
reading.
The "DIODE" setting must be used for diodes and transistors. It
should also be called a "TRANSISTOR" setting.
TESTING AN unknown TRANSISTOR The first thing you may want to do is test an unknown transistor
for COLLECTOR, BASE AND EMITTER. You also want to perform a test to find out if
it is NPN or PNP.
That's what this test will provide.
You need a cheap multimeter called an ANALOGUE METER - a multimeter with
a scale and pointer (needle).
It will measure resistance values (normally used to test resistors) - (you can
also test other components) and Voltage and Current. We use the resistance
settings. It may have ranges such as "x10" "x100"
"x1k" "x10"
Look at the resistance scale on the meter. It will be the top scale.
The scale starts at zero on the right and the high values are on the left. This
is opposite to all the other scales.
When the two probes are touched together, the needle swings FULL SCALE and
reads "ZERO." Adjust the pot on the side of the meter to make the
pointer read exactly zero.
How to read: "x10" "x100"
"x1k" "x10"
Up-scale from the zero mark is "1"
When the needle swings to this position on the "x10" setting, the
value is 10 ohms.
When the needle swings to "1" on the "x100" setting, the
value is 100 ohms.
When the needle swings to "1" on the "x1k" setting, the
value is 1,000 ohms = 1k.
When the needle swings to "1" on the "x10k" setting, the
value is 10,000 ohms = 10k.
Use this to work out all the other values on the scale.
Resistance values get very close-together (and very inaccurate) at the high end
of the scale. [This is just a point to note and does not affect testing a
transistor.]
Step 1 - FINDING THE BASE and determining NPN or PNPGet an unknown transistor and test it with a multimeter set to
"x10"
Try the 6 combinations and when you have the black probe on a pin and the red
probe touches the other pins and the meter swings nearly full scale, you have
an NPN transistor. The black probe is BASE
If the red probe touches a pin and the black probe produces a swing on the
other two pins, you have a PNP transistor. The red probe is BASE
If the needle swings FULL SCALE or if it swings for more than 2 readings, the
transistor is FAULTY.
Step 2 - FINDING THE COLLECTOR and EMITTERSet the meter to
"x10k." For an NPN transistor,
place the leads on the transistor and when you press hard on the two leads
shown in the diagram below, the needle will swing almost full scale.
For a PNP
transistor, set the meter to "x10k" place the leads on the transistor
and when you press hard on the two leads shown in the diagram below, the needle
willswing almost full scale.
SIMPLEST TRANSISTOR TESTERThe simplest transistor
tester uses a 9v battery, 1k resistor and a LED (any colour). Keep trying a
transistor in all different combinations until you get one of the circuits
below. When you push on the two leads, the LED will get brighter.
The transistor will be NPN or PNP and the leads will be identified:
The leads of some transistors will need to
be bent so the pins are in the same positions as shown in the diagrams. This
helps you see how the transistor is being turned on. This works with NPN, PNP
transistors and Darlington transistors. 
HEATSINKING
Heat generated by current
flowing between the collector and emitter leads of a transistor causes its
temperature to rise. This heat must be conducted away from the transistor
otherwise the rise may be high enough to damage the P-N junctions inside the
device. Power transistors produce a lot of heat, and are therefore usually
mounted on a piece of aluminium with fins, called a HEATSINK.
This draws heat away, allowing it to handle more current. Low-power signal transistors
do not normally require heat sinking. Some transistors have a metal body or fin
to connect to a larger heatsink. If the transistor is connected to a heatsink
with a mica sheet (mica washer), it can be damaged or cracked and create a
short-circuit. (SeeTesting Mica Washers). Or a small piece of metal may be puncturing the mica.
Sometimes white compound called Heatsink Compound is used to
conduct heat through the mica. This is very important as mica is a very poor
conductor of heat and the compound is needed to provide maximum thermal
conduction.
TRANSISTOR FAILURE
Transistor can fail in a
number of ways. They have forward and reverse voltage ratings and once these
are exceeded, the transistor will ZENER or conduct and may fail. In some cases
a high voltage will "puncture" the transistor and it will fail
instantly. In fact it will fail much faster via a voltage-spike than a current
overload.
It may fail with a "short" between any leads, with a
collector-emitter short being the most common. However failures will also
create shorts between all three leads.
A shorted transistor will allow a large current to flow, and cause other components
to heat up.
Transistors can also develop an open circuit between base and collector, base
and emitter or collector and emitter.
The first step in identifying a faulty transistor is to check for signs of
overheating. It may appear to be burnt, melted or exploded. When the equipment
is switched off, you can touch the transistor to see if it feels unusually hot.
The amount of heat you feel should be proportional to the size of the
transistor's heat sink. If the transistor has no heat sink, yet is very hot,
you can suspect a problem.
DO NOT TOUCH A TRANSISTOR IF IT IS PART OF A CIRCUIT THAT CARRIES 240VAC.
Always switch off the equipment before touching any components.TRANSISTOR REPLACEMENT
If you can't get an exact replacement, refer to a transistor substitution guide
to identify a near equivalent.
The important parameters are:
- Voltage
- Current
- Wattage
- Maximum frequency of operation
The replacement part should have parameters equal to or higher than the
original.
Points to remember:
- Polarity of the transistor i.e. PNP or NPN.
- At least the same voltage, current and wattage rating.
- Low frequency or high frequency type.
- Check the pinout of the replacement part
- Use a desoldering pump to remove the transistor to prevent damage to the
printed circuit board.
- Fit the heat sink.
- Check the mica washer and use heat-sink compound
- Tighten the nut/bolt - not too tight or too loose.
- Horizontal output transistors with an integrated diode should be replaced
with the
same type.DIGITAL TRANSISTORSThere is no such thing as a DIGITAL TRANSISTOR, however some
transistors are available with built-in resistors between base and emitter (to
save space on the board) and these transistors are often used in digital
circuits. The transistor will amplify analogue signals but when the signal is
0v then immediately goes to a voltage above 0.7v, the transistor is in a
DIGITAL CIRCUIT and the transistor is called a DIGITAL
TRANSISTOR. It is tested like an ordinary transistor but the low
value resistor between base and emitter will produce a low reading in both
directions.
DARLINGTON
TRANSISTORS
A DARLINGTON TRANSISTOR is two transistors in a single package
with three leads. They are internally connected in cascade so the gain of the
pair is very high. This allows a very small input signal to produce a large
signal at the output. They have three leads (Base, Collector and Emitter and
can be PNP or NPN) and are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor, but with a very high gain. The second advantage of a Darlington
Transistor is its high input impedance. It puts very little load on the
previous circuit.
Some Darlington transistors have a built-in diode and/or built-in resistor and
this will produce a low reading in both directions between the base and emitter
leads.
Darlington transistors are tested the same as an ordinary
transistor and a multimeter will produce about the same deflection, even though
you will be measuring across two junctions, (and a base-emitter resistor is
present).HORIZONTAL OUTPUT
TRANSISTORS, SWITCH-MODE TRANSISTORS, FLYBACK TRANSISTORS, POWER TRANSISTORS,
VERTICAL TRANSISTORS . . . .
These are all names given to a transistor when it is used in a particular
circuit. ALL these transistors are the same for testing purposes.
We are not testing for gain, maximum voltage, speed of operation or any special
feature. We are just testing to see if the transistor is completely faulty and
SHORTED.
A transistor can have lots of other faults and the circuit using the
transistor is the best piece of TEST EQUIPMENT as it is detecting the
fault.TESTING MOSFETs and FETsMOSFETs and JFETs are all part of the FET family.
MOSFET stands for Metal
Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
FETs operate exactly the same as a "normal" transistor
except they have different names for the input and output leads and the voltage
between the gate and the source has to between 2v to 5v for the device to turn
on fully. A FET requires almost NO CURRENT into the Gate for it to turn on and
when it does, the voltage between drain and source is very low (only a few mV).
This allows them to pass very high currents without getting hot. There is a
point where they start to turn on and the input voltage must rise higher than
this so the FET turns on FULLY and does not get hot. Field Effect
Transistors are difficult to test with a multimeter, but
"fortunately" when a power MOSFET blows, it is
completely damaged. All the leads will show a short circuit. 99% of bad MOSFETs will
have GS, GD and DS shorted.
The following symbols show some of the different types of MOSFETs:
Most MOSFET transistors cannot be tested with a
multimeter. This due to the fact that the Gate needs 2v - 5v to turn on the
device and this voltage is not present on the probes of either meter set to any
of the ohms ranges.
You need to build the following Test Circuit:
Touching the Gate will increase the voltage on the Gate and the
MOSFET will turn on and illuminate the LED. Removing your finger will turn the
LED off.
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERs (SCR)The Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor device that is a member
of a family of control devices known as Thyristors. It is a
3-leaded device and when a small current enters the Gate, the thyristor turns
on. AND STAYS ON. It only conducts current between Anode and Cathode in
one direction and it is mainly only used in DC circuits. When it is used with
AC, it will only conduct for a maximum of half the cycle.
To understand how an SCR "latches" when the gate is
provided with a small current, we can replace it with two transistors as shown
in diagram B above. When the ON button is pressed, the BC547 transistor
turns on. This turns ON the BC557 and it takes over from the action of the
switch.
To turn the circuit off, the OFF button removes the voltage from the base of
the BC547.
Testing an SCRAn SCR can be tested with some multimeters but a
minimum current Anode-to-Cathode is needed to keep the device turned on. Some
multimeters do not provide this amount of current and the SCR Tester circuit
above is the best way to test these devices.
Shorted SCRs can usually be detected with an ohmmeter check (SCRs usually fail
shorted rather than open).
Measure the anode-to-cathode resistance in both the forward and reverse
direction; a good SCR should measure near infinity in both directions.
Small and medium-size SCRs can also be gated ON with an ohmmeter (on a digital
meter use the Diode Check Function). Forward bias the SCR with the ohmmeter by
connecting the black ( - ) lead to the anode and the red ( + )
lead to the cathode (because the + of the battery is connected to the
negative lead, in most analogue multimeters). Momentarily touch the gate lead
to the anode while the probes are still touching both leads; this will provide
a small positive turn-on voltage to the gate and the cathode-to-anode
resistance reading will drop to a low value. Even after removing the gate
voltage, the SCR will stay conducting. Disconnecting the meter leads from the
anode or cathode will cause the SCR to revert to its non-conducting state.
When making the above test, the meter impedance acts as the SCR load. On larger
SCRs, it may not latch ON because the test current is not above the SCR holding
current.Using the SCR TesterConnect an SCR and press Switch2. The lamp
should not illuminate. If it illuminates, the SCR is around the wrong way or it
is faulty.
Keep Switch 2 PRESSED. Press Sw1 very briefly. The lamp or motor will turn ON
and remain ON. Release Sw 2 and press it again. The Lamp or motor will be OFF.
TRIACsA triac is a bidirectional, three-terminal dual, back-to-back
thyristor (SCR) switch. This device will conduct current in both directions
when a small current is constantly applied to the Gate.
If the gate is given a small, brief, current during any instant of a cycle, it
will remain triggered during the completion of the cycle until the current
though the Main Terminals drops to zero.
This means it will conduct both the positive and negative half-cycles of an AC
waveform. If it is tuned on (with a brief pulse) half-way up the positive
waveform, it will remain on until the wave rises and finally reaches zero. If
it is then turned on (with a brief pulse) part-way on the negative wave, the
result will be pulses of energy and the end result will be about 50% of the
full-energy delivered at a rate of 100 times per second for a 50HZ supply.
TRIACs are particularly suited for AC power control applications such as motor
speed control, light dimmers, temperature control and many others.
Using the TRIAC Tester
Connect a TRIAC and press Switch2. The lamp should not illuminate.
If it illuminates, the TRIAC is faulty.
Keep Switch 2 PRESSED. Press Sw1 very briefly. The lamp or motor will turn ON
and remain ON. If the lamp does not turn on, reverse the TRIAC as the current
into the gate must produce a slight voltage between Gate and Main
Terminal 1.
Release Sw 2 and press it again. The Lamp or motor will be OFF.
MICA WASHERS AND INSULATORSPlastic insulating sheets (washers) between a transistor and
heatsink are most often made from mica but some are plastic and these get
damaged over a period of time, turn dark and become cracked.
The plastic eventually becomes carbonized and conducts current and can affect
the operation of the appliance. You can see the difference between a mica sheet
(washer) and plastic by looking where it extends from under the transistor.
Replace all plastic insulators as they eventually fail.SPARK GAPSSome TV's
and monitors with a CRT (picture tube), have spark gaps either on the socket at
the end of the tube or on the chassis.
These can consist of two wires inside a plastic holder or a glass tube or
special resistive device.
The purpose of a spark gap is to take any flash-over (from inside the tube), to
earth. This prevents damage to the rest of the circuit.
However if the tube constantly flashes over, a carbon track builds up between
the wires and effectively reduces the screen voltage. This can cause brightness
and/or focus problems. Removing the spark-gap will restore the voltage.
These are not available as a spare component and it's best to get one from a
discarded chassis.
